Sunday, August 24, 2008

Chinese Command The Outcast

A feature of the times was the remarkably personal character of the wars, and the apparent utter indifference to humble popular interests; _Quidquid delirant reges, plectuntur Achivi;_ stress is laid upon this point by the democratic philosopher Lao-tsz, who, however, in his book , is wise enough never to name a person or place; probably that prudence saved it from the flames in 213 B.C.
In 684 B.C. the ruler of Ts'ai treated very rudely his own wife's sister, married to a petty prince close by; the sister was simply passing through as a traveller; the result was that this petty prince, her husband, induced Ts'u to make war upon Ts'ai, whose reigning prince was captured, and died a prisoner. In _657_ the ruler of Ts'ai had a sister married in Ts'i. The First Protector, offended at some act of playful disobedience, sent her back, but without actually divorcing her. Her brother was so angry that he found her another husband. On this Ts'i declared war, and captured the brother, who, however, at the intercession of the other vassal princes, was restored to his kingdom. In 509 and 506 B.C. Ts'ai induces Tsin to make war on Ts'u, and also assists Wu in her hostilities against Ts'u, because a Ts'u minister had detained the ruler of Ts'ai for refusing to part with a handsome fur coat. It is like the stealing of the Golden Fleece by Jason, and similar Greek squabbles. In 675 B.C. the Emperor, for the third time, had to fly from his capital, the immediate cause of the trouble being an attempt on his part to seize a vassal's rice-field for including in his own park--a Chinese version of the Naboth's vineyard dispute. Nothing could better prove the pettiness of the ancient state-horizon; no busily active great power could find time for such trifles.
When the Second Protector came to the throne, the orthodox states of Wei, Ts'ao, and Cheng , which had treated him scurvily as a wanderer, had all three of them to pay dearly for their meanness. In 632, when the Protector had secured the Tsin throne, the ruler of Ts'ao was promptly captured, and part of his territory was given to Sung . The same year Tsin wished to assist Sung, and accordingly asked right of way through the state of Wei, which was curtly refused; the Tsin army therefore crossed the Yellow River to the south of Wei: as a punishment for this refusal, and also for the previous rude treatment, Wei also had to give part of her territory to the favoured Sung. In 630 Tsin induced Ts'in to join in an attack upon Cheng, the object being, of course, to revenge similar personal rudenesses; however, Cheng diplomacy was successful in inducing Ts'in to abandon Tsin in the nick of time: this was one of the very few cases in which Ts'in interfered, or was about to interfere, in "orthodox" affairs. In 592 Tsin sent a hunchback envoy to Ts'i; it so happened that at the same time Lu sent one who was lame, and Wei a third who was blind of one eye. The Ts'i ruler thereupon appointed an officer mutilated in some other way to do the duties of host to this sorry trio. The Tsin envoy swore: "If I do not revenge this upon Ts'i, may the God of the Yellow River take note of it!" Reaching his own country, he tried to induce the ruler to make war on Ts'i; but the prince said: "Your personal pique should hardly suffice for ground to trouble the whole country": and he refused.
The principle of the divinity that doth hedge a king was early established, but there are certainly more numerous evidences of royal absolutism in Ts'u than in orthodox China, where responsibility of rulers before Heaven and the People was an accepted axiom. For instance, in 522 B.C., an officer, knowing that the King of Ts'u was sending for him in order to kill him, said to his brother: "As the king orders it, one of us two must go, but you can avenge me later on." When the next Ts'u king was a fugitive, and it was a question in a subject's mind of killing him because his father had taken a brother's life, it was objected: "No! if the king slays one of his officers, who can avenge it? His commands emanate from Heaven. It is unpardonable to cut off the ancestral sacrifice of a whole house in this way."
In still more ancient times, when the last Emperor of the Shang dynasty was being warned of the rising popular feeling in favour of the rising Chou power, he remarked: "Have I not Heaven's mandate? What can they do to me?" When the Martial King achieved his conquest, he smeared the god of the soil with the sacrificial victims' blood, and announced the crimes of the dead tyrant to Heaven. In the war of 589 between Tsin and Ts'i, the ruler of Ts'i, who had changed places with his charioteer in order to escape detection, was hotly pursued; but his chariot caught in a tree. Seeing this, the Tsin captain prostrated himself before the chariot, and said: "My princely master's orders are to assist the states of Lu and Wei" . Meanwhile the disguised charioteer ordered the disguised king to fetch a drink of water, and the king thus escaped even the humiliation of a favour from his generous victor. When in 548 a worthless Ts'i ruler was assassinated, the philosopher Yen-tsz said: "When the ruler dies or is exiled for the gods of the land and its harvests, one dies or is exiled with him; but if he dies or is exiled for private reasons, then only his personal friends die with him." He therefore contented himself with wailing, and with laying his head on the royal body. The same Tsin captain who was so tender to the Ts'i duke in 589 had an opportunity fourteen years later of taking prisoner the ruler of CH?NG in battle; but he said: "Evil cometh to him who toucheth a crowned head! I have already committed sacrilege once against the ruler of Ts'i; preserve me from committing this crime a second time!" And he turned promptly back. During the same fight, the King of Ts'u's body-guard was attacked by the Tsin generalissimo, who, when he discerned the king in the centre of the guards, got out of his chariot, doffed his helmet, and fled in horror, "such was his respect for the person of royalty." It was a ritual rule in China for the distinguished men not to remove the official head-covering in death; for instance, in 481, when one of Confucius' pupils was killed in war, his last patriotic act was to tie his hat-strings tighter. Though rulers were supposed to owe duties to the gods in general, yet the power of the gods was limited. Thus when Tsz-ch'an of CH?NG was sent as envoy to Tsin in 541, the sick Tsin ruler asked him: "How can the two gods who, they say, are responsible for my malady, be conjured?" Tsz-ch'an replied: "These particular gods cannot injure you; we sacrifice to them in connection with natural phenomena, such as drought, flood, or other disaster; just as in matters of snow, hail, rain, or wind we sacrifice to the gods of the sun, moon, planets, and constellations. Your illness is the result of drink, over-feeding, women, passionate anger, excessive pleasure." Shuh Hiang approved this common-sense view of the situation.
ANCIENT CHINESE LAW
APPENDIX I
In the spring of the year 536 B.C., Tsz-ch'an, one of the leading statesmen in the Chinese Federal Union, decided to publish for popular information the Criminal Law which had hitherto been simply "declared" by the various rulers and their officers according to the circumstances of each case. At this time the different premiers and ministers used to visit each other freely, generally in the suite of the reigning prince who happened to be either receiving or paying a visit from or to some other vassal prince. The Emperor himself, now shorn of his power, was only primus inter pares amongst these princes. Shuh Hiang, one of the ministers at the neighbouring court of Tsin, addressed the following remarkable letter to the colleague above mentioned who had introduced the legal innovation. It is published in exteso in Confucius' own history of the times, as expanded by one of his pupils:--
"At first I used to regard you as a guide, but now all this is at an end. Our monarchs in past times were wont to decide matters by specific ordinance, and had no prepared statutes, fearing lest the people should grow contentious. Yet even so it was impossible to suppress wrong-doing; for which reason they employed justice as a preventive, administration to bring things into line, external formality to secure respect, good faith as an abiding principle, and kindness in actual treatment. They appointed certain ranks and emoluments with a view to encouraging their officers to follow the course thus sketched out for them, and they fixed certain stern punishments and fines in order to fill these officers with a dread of arbitrariness, fearing that otherwise they might fail in their duty. Thus admonition was given with every loyalty; fear was inspired by personal example; instruction was conveyed as occasion required; employment in service was accompanied by suavity; contact with inferiors was marked by a respectful demeanour; the executive arm was firmly applied; and decisions were carried out with virility. Yet, with all this, it was never too easy to secure wise and saintly princes, clever and discriminating ministers, loyal and trusty officials, or kind and affectionate instructors. Under these circumstances, however, it was possible to set the people going, and China was at least free from revolution and misery.
"But when the people themselves become cognizant of a written law, they will cease to fear their superiors, and, moreover, they will acquire a contentious spirit. Having book to refer to, they will employ every device to elude the letter of the law. This will not do at all. It was only in times of anarchical rule that the founders of the Hia and Shang dynasties found it necessary to issue the collections of laws which still bear their two respective names; and it was also only in anarchical times that one Emperor of our present dynasty found it necessary to publish the so-called Nine Laws. In other words, the advent of written law has on all three occasions connoted a decay in government. You, sir, are the chief minister of _CH?NG_ state ; you made a few years ago some new regulations about the parcelling of land; next you placed the system of your taxation on a fresh basis; and you now proceed to embody the three special collections just cited in a new popular code, which you have had cast in metal characters. If you are doing it with a view to pacify the people, surely you will not find this an easy matter? The 'Book of Odes' says: 'King _Wên_ took virtue as his guide, and thus gradually pacified the four quarters of the world.' It also says: 'The methods of King Wu secured the confidence of all the other countries.' Where were the written laws in those times? When people begin to get the contentious spirit upon them, they will have done with the principles of propriety, and only stickle for the letter; they will haggle upon every tiny point accessible to knife's edge or awl's tip. We shall witness a flood of litigious accusations; bribery and corruption will be rampant. Do you think the state of Cheng will last out your life? I have heard it said: 'When a country is about to collapse, there are many conflicting administrative changes.' Will this apply to present conditions?"
The reply returned was:-
"With regard to what my honourable friend has been pleased to say, I am afraid my humble capacities are not sufficiently great to take the interests of posterity; my action has been taken in the interests of the state as I find it, and as I have to govern it. Though, therefore, I cannot accept tour commands, I shall be careful not to forget your kindness in proffering advice."
Though the exact words of the above-mentioned Code in Brass have not come down to us, they are the foundation of Chinese Criminal Law as it exists to-day, modified, of course, dynasty by dynasty. At this time Confucius was a mere youth; but later on, as minister of a third vassal state, that of Lu, he also expressed his disapproval of a written code, much though he respected the author, whom he knew personally. Shuh Hiang's letter is of interest as showing the pitch of philosophy, common-sense, and international courtesy to which the statesmen of China had attained 2400 years ago.
APPENDIX II
In 539 B.C. the Ts'i statesman and philosopher Yen-tsz was sent on a mission to Tsin in order to negotiate a political marriage. At this period Han K'i, also called Han Süan-tsz, was the premier of Tsin, and he despatched the minister Shuh Hiang with a complimentary message to the Ts'i envoy, accepting the offer of a suitable wife. At this time the diplomatic relations of the Chinese states were particularly interesting, because, apart from the fact that intellectual premiers ruled all the great states, most of them were personal friends, acquaintances, or correspondents of Confucius, who has left on record his judgment upon each. After the official marriage negotiations were over, Shuh Hiang ordered refreshments, and he and Yen-tsz sat down to a nice quiet little chat by themselves.
Shuh Hiang. How is Ts'i going on?
_Yen-tsz_. These are bad times. I don't know what I can say about Ts'i, except that it appears to be falling into the hands of the CH'?N family. The prince neglects his people, and consequently they turn to the CH'?N family for protection. In former times Ts'i had three grain measures, each a four multiple of the other--etc. four pints, sixteen pints, sixty-four pints--and finally there was a large measure containing ten times the last, or 640 pints ; but the three measures of the CH'?N family have each been raised by one unit, so that three successive fives multiplied by ten give 800 pints, and their plan is to make loans of grain with their private 8oo-pint measure, and then to take back payments in the prince's measure. The wood from the mountains is sold in the market-place as cheaply as on the mountains; fish, salt, clams, and cockles are sold in the market-place as cheaply as on the shore. On the other hand, two-thirds of the produce of the people's labour go to the prince, whilst only one-third remains for the sustenance of the producers. The prince's stores rot away, whilst our old men die of starvation. False feet are cheaper than shoes in the market-place ; the people are smarting with a sense of wrong, and are longing for the advent , whom they love as a parent, and towards whom they tend, just as water runs downhill. Under these circumstances, even if they did not want to gain the people over, how can they avoid it? The last surviving member of that branch of the CH'?N family who traced his descent to previous dynasties has still left his spirit in the land of Ts'i, though the representatives of the family are nominally subjects of Ts'i.
Shuh Hiang. Yes. And even our ruling house of Tsin has fallen on degenerate times. Armies are no longer equipped, and our statesmen are not ready for war. There is no one to lead the chariots, and our battalions have no competent commanders. The common people are utterly exhausted, whilst the extravagance of the palace is unbounded. The starving folk line the roads, whilst money is squandered upon female favourites. The commands of the prince are received by the people as though they longed to escape the clutches of a bandit. The representatives of the eight leading families who have served the state so long and faithfully are reduced to the most insignificant offices. Government is administered in certain private interests, and the people have no one to whom to appeal. The ruler shows no sign of amendment, and endeavours to drown his cares in excessive indulgence. When did the ruling house ever before reach the low depths of to-day? The warning oracle inscribed on the tripod says: "However early you may get to zealous work, your descendants may be lazy." How much more, in the case of a man who will not reform, is disaster likely to be impending soon!
_Yen-tsz_. What do you propose to do?
Shuh Hiang. The ruling house of Tsin is about exhausted. I have heard it said that when a ruling house is about to fall, its family members drop off first, like the branches and leaves of a stricken tree; and the ruler himself, like the trunk, follows suit. Take my own stock, for instance, which formerly contained eleven family or clan names. The Sheepstongue clan is my clan, and the only one now left; and I myself have no son fit to be my heir. The ruling house is arbitrary and capricious, so that, even if I am fortunate enough to die in my bed myself, I shall have no one to perform the sacra for me.
In 513 B.C. two generals of the Tsin state carried their arms into the Luh-hun reservation , whither, in 638 B.C., the Tartar tribe of that name had been brought to settle by agreement between the two Chinese powers whose territories ran with the Tartars; "and then they drew upon Tsin state for four cwt. of iron, in order to cast a punishment tripod upon which to inscribe the law-book composed by Fan Süan- tsz ." Confucius said:--
"It looks as though Tsin were about to perish, as it has made a mistake in its calculations. The state of Tsin ought to govern its people by maintaining the ancient laws and ordinances received by their ancestor who was first enfeoffed there , when the officers of state would each observe the same in their degree. Thus the people would know how to respect their superiors, and the ruling classes would be in a position to maintain their patrimonies. The proper balance between superior classes and commoners is what we call 'ordinance.' The ruling prince W&n for this reason established an official body of dignitaries, and organized the annual spring revision of the laws of his ancestors as Representative Federal Prince. Now Tsin abandons this system, and makes a tripod, which tripod--will henceforth govern the people's acts. How can they now respect their superiors ? How can the superiors maintain their patrimonies? If superiors and commoners confuse degree, how can the state go on? Moreover, Süan-tsz's punishments date from the spring revision , when confusion and change was going on in Tsin state; how can they take this as a fit precedent?"
APPENDIX III
About twenty-five centuries ago--in 546 B.C., to be precise--the Chinese Powers had a "Hague Conference" with a view to the reduction of armaments. This is how Confucius' pupil, Tso K'iu- ming, tells the story in the "Tso Chwan," or expanded version of Confucius' "Springs and Autumns" :--
"A statesman of Ho Nan, being on friendly terms with his colleagues of Shan Si and Hu P&h, conceived the idea of making a name for himself by proposing a cessation of armaments. He went first to Shan Si, and interviewed the Premier there; the Premier consulted his colleagues in the Shan Si ministry, and one of them said: 'War is ruinous to the people, and a fearful waste of wealth; it is the curse of the smaller Powers. Although the idea will come to nothing, we must consent to a conference; otherwise Hu P&h will consent to it first, in order to gain favour with the Powers, and thus we shall lose the predominant position we now occupy.' So Shan Si consented.
"Then Hu Pêh was visited, and also consented. Then Shan Tung . Shan Tung did not like the idea; but one of the Shan Tung Ministers said: 'Shan Si and Hu P&h have agreed, and we have no help for it. Besides, the world will say that there would be a cessation of armaments were it not for our refusal, and thus our own people will vote against us. What is the use of that?' So Shan Tung consented. Next Shen Si was notified. Shen Si also consented. Then the whole four great Powers notified the minor States, and a great durbar was held at a minor court in Ho Nan."
The curious part of it all is that the representative of the Emperor did not appear at the Conference at all, though all the Great Powers maintained the fiction of granting precedence to the Emperor and his nuncios, and even went through the form of accepting investiture from him and taking tribute presents to the Imperial Court-when it suited them.
This celebrated Peace Conference closed the seventy-two years of almost incessant war that had been going on between Tsin and Ts'in , apart from the subsidiary war between Tsin and Ts'u .


INDEX
Absorption, Chinese Accadian. See Babylonian Adams, Will Address, forms of Advisers, Chinese Advisers, Tartar African parallels Agriculture Ainus, people Alexander the Great Alienation of fiefs Alliances Alphabets, imperfection of Altars Altars, private Ambassadors. See Envoys; Missions American parallels Analects of Confucius Ancestral feeling Ancestral sacrifices Ancestral tablets Ancestral temples Anglo-Saxon civilization An Hwei, province Annals Annam, King of Annamese race Appanages, ducal Aquarius Archives Area of Ancient China Army organization Army provision Army, standing Arrows Arsenals Assassinations of princes Assyria. See Babylonia Astrology Astronomy Atlantic Augury. See Oracles Augustus, title August Emperor ; Second); ; Authorities consulted Axes as emblems Axles
Babel, Tower of Babylonian civilization "Babylonian women," Baghatur, the Khan Bamboo Books Banner garrisons Banquets, imperial Barbarian influences Barbarian kings Barbarians Barbarians, Eastern Barbarous gods Barbarous vassals Barons Bastards Battles, gigantic Beards Bears' paws Bells as music "Bible" of China Bismarck Blackwater, river Blood-drawing Blood-drinking Blood-smearing Boat travelling Boiling alive Book of Chou Book of Hia "Book, The" Books, wooden Bows and arrows "Boxer" troubles Bridges Britain Bronze documents Bruce, Major Brush for writing Buddhism Buffer states Builders, Chinese as Burials. See Funerals Burma
Cadastral surveys Cadiz C?sar, title Calendars Cambodgia Camels Canal, Grand Canals, early Canton Capitals, imperial Capitals, vassal Capricorn Caravans Cardinals Carlyle Carthage. See Phoenicians "Cash" Caste, none in China Caste, royal Caste, ruling Castration Casuistry Cattle trade Cavalry Cave-dwellers Celtic migration Celtic races Centralization Central Kingdom Ceremonial. See Rites Cessions of imperial territory _Chan-Kwoh Ts'êh_ Ch'ang, personal name Chang, river _Ch'ang-chon Fu_ Chang I, diplomatist Ch'ang-sha, modern Ch'ang-shuh, city Changes, Book of Chao, state Characters. See Writing Chariots Charities Charlemagne Chavannes, Professor Edouard Chefoo, port Chêh Kiang, province Ch'ên Ch'ang Ch'ên family and state Ch'ên-chou Fu Chêng, imperial name Chêng, state Ch'éng-tu, city, Chih Li, province, China, ancient nucleus of, China, old name for, , China, south, China unified, Chinese advisers, Chinkiang, port, Chivalry, Choh Chou, locality, Chou, collapse of, house, See Emperor Chou, Duke of, Chou dynasty, Chou dynasty, end of, Chou principality, Chou, Rites of, , Christianity, Chronology, definite, Ch'ung-êrh, prince, Ch'unghou, Manchu envoy, Ch'ung-k'ing, modern, Church, the, Churches, none in China, Chusan Island, Chwang, King of Ts'u, Chwang-tsz, philosopher, Cities, Citizenship, Civilian King, Civilization, advance of, Clan, or gem, Clan, imperial, Classic of poetry, Classic, Law, Classics, Classification of the people, Clay documents, Clerks, See Archives and Historiographers Clerks or precentors, Clients, Coast provinces, Cochin China, Cockfighting, Coffins, Colonization, Chinese, Colours, Comets, Compass, the, Concubines, Conference, See Peace Confucius, Confucius, his birthday, Confucius, his birthplace, Confucius, his family, Confucius, his History work, Confucius, his liquor, Confucius, his literary labours, Confucius, his tampering, Confucius, his wanderings, Confusion of Tongues, Conqueror , Conquest of China, See China Constantinople, Continuity of history, Cooks, Copper, Corea, Coreans, Corpse mutilation, Cosmogony, Cotton, Couches, Country, definition of, Counts, 29 , Court duty, Courtesans, Courtesy titles, Courts, vassal, Creation, the, Critics , Croesus, Cromwell, Oliver, Cuba, Cultivators, Customs, foreign, Cycles of time, Cyclic dates, Cyrus,
Dancing women, Danube, the, Dates, definite, Dates, Julian and Gregorian, Dead, the, Democracy of Lao-tsz, Descent, rules of, Desert, Destruction of literature, Diagrams, Dialects, _Dies nefas,_ Diplomatic adventurers, Diplomatic terms, Disciples of Confucius, , Divine right, Diviners, See Astrology Documents, Documents in bronze, Documents in stone, Documents in wood, Documents on silk, Dogs, zog, Dog-flesh, Dog Tartars, Door-keepers, Dress, Drums, Drums, stone, Drunkenness, Duke Muh of Ts'in , Duke of Chou, Duke of Shao, Duke of Sung, Dukes, Dukes of Confucius, 35, 135 Durbars, Dynasties, first , Dynasties, inter-related, Dynasties, second , Dynasties, third ,
Ears, amputation of, Ears, piercing of, Earls, See Counts Eastern Barbarians, Eastern metropolis, Eclipses, Ecliptic, Eden, garden of, Education, 89, Egret fights, Egyptian civilization, Elephants, Embassies, Japanese, Emperor, Emperor Above, or God, Emperor and Tartar marriages, Emperor's appanage, Emperor, collapse of, Emperor, early burial places, Emperor, flights from his capital, Emperor killed by barbarians, Emperor killed by Tartars, Emperor, suzerain, Emperor, title of, Emperor's court, Emperors, dual, "Empire," names for, Empire, struggle for, Empresses, Empresses--Dowager, Engineering, England, Envoys, Equinoxes, Etiquette, , Eunuchs, Europe and China, ancient, European critics, Euphrates, river, Evidence, historical, Exchange currency, Exogamy, Expanded Confucian histories, Explorations, Early Chinese, Expresses, Exterminating punishments,
Facing north, south, east, and west, Fah Hien, pilgrim, Fah, personal name, Fairs, Families, branching off of, Families, great, Fan Süan-tsz, statesman, Fasting, Father of Chinese History, , Feasts, Federal princes, Fên River, Fêng-siang Fu, Feudal system, Feudal system, destruction of, Fiefs, Fighting State Period, First August Emperor, Fish industry, Five Tyrants, Dictators, or Protectors, See Protectors Flags, use of, Flooding cities, Foochow, Food, Foot, length of, Football, Foot-squeezing, Fords, Foreign blood in China, Foreign critics, Foreign languages, Foreign princes, , Foreign states , Forke, Professor, Formosa, Founder of Chou dynasty, See Martial King Four seasons, Fowling, French, the, Frontiers, Frontiers, changing, Fu-ch'ai, King of Wu, Fuh Kien, province, Funerals, _Fu-yung_ vassals,
Games, Genesis, Geography, ancient, Germans, , Germany, Emperors of, Ghosts, See Spirits God, notions of, Gods, See Spirits Gods of rivers, Gods of the harvest, Gods of the land, Gold, Golden Horn, Gordon, General, Gorges of Yang-tsz River, Gospels, the, Government, theory of, Grain trade, Grand Canal, Grants, See Fiefs Grapes, Great families, See Families Great River, , Great Wall, Greece, Greek civilization, Guelph, the name, Gulf of "Pechelee," Gutchen, locality,
Hauge Conference, Hainan Island, Hair, dressing the, Hami, locality, Han dynasty, Han Emperor, Han K'i, statesman, Han, Pass of, Han River, Han, State of, Han Süan-tsz, Handicraft, Handmaids, Hangchow, modern, Hankow, modern, Harashar, locality, Harems, See Eunuchs Hats, rank in, Hawaii, Head-covering, Heaven, Heaven, Son of, See Tenshi Heaven, will of, Hegemons, Five. See Protectors Hegemony, official, Heirs, Helmets, Hemp, Hereditary offices, Herodotus, "Hia," meaning "Chinese," Hia dynasty, Hiang Süh, statesman, Hen city, Hien, definition of, Hien-fêng, Emperor, Hien-yang, locality, Hindoo trading colonies, Hindu Kush, Historical critics, Historical manipulations, Historiographers, History, discrepancies in, History, earliest dated, History, early Chinese, History, medieval Chinese, "History," names for, History, Japanese, History of Shuh, History of Sz Ch'wan, History of Tsin, History, romance of, Hiung-nu, Homage, Ho-nan Fu, Ho Nan Province, Hong Kong, "Horizontal and Perpendicular" Period, Horses, Horse-flesh, Hostages, House of Commons, House of Lords, Houses, Hü, state, Human origins, Human sacrifices, Hu Kwang, province, See Hu Pêh Hu Nan, province, Hu Pfh, province, , Hundred Yüeh, Hungarian migration, Huns, See Hiung-nu Hunts, Hwa, city, Hwai-k'ing Fu, Hwai-nan-tsz, author, Hwai River, Hwai savages, See Eastern Barbarians Hwai valley, Hwsn, Duke of Lu,
"I," the words for, I, River, Ich'ang, modern, I-thou Fu, Imagination and fact, Immortality defined, Imperial clan, Imperial residences, Imperial domain, See Dukes and Emperor Imperator, the title, Imprecation, Incest, India, Indo-China, Infanticide, Ink, Inscriptions, Intercalary months, International Law, Investiture, Iron trade, Irrigation, Islands, South Sea, Italy, See Roman civilization Ito, Prince or Duke, Ivory,
Jade, Japan, Japanese, Japanese civilization, Japanese history, Japanese language, Japanese types, Jêhol, locality, Jesuits, Jews, Jimmu, Mikado, "Joints," twenty-four, of time, Journey, in days, Judge-made law, _Julia, Lex_, Jungle , Jung-tsêh, city, Jurisprudence,
K'AI, city, Kakhyens, Kan-thou Fu, K'ang-hi, Emperor, Kashgaria, Keugu, country, , Khan, Supreme Tartar, Khoten, Ki clan, K'i principality, Ki-chah, prince of Wu, Kia-ting Fu, Kiang Si, province, Kiang Su, province, Kiang-yin, locality, Kiao Chou, K'ien, River, King , King, title of, King-thou Fu, King River, Kings, Tartar, Kitchen middens, Kou-tsien, King, Kruger, President, Kublai Khan, Kuché, locality, Ku-ch'êng, locality, Kumiss, _Kung-tsz_, or son of reigning prince, K'ü-pêh-yüh, Confucius' friend, K'üh-fu, city, K'üh Yüan, poet, Kwa Chou, locality, Kwan-tsz, philosopher, Kwan-tsz, his death, Kwei Chou, province, Kwei-têh Fu, Kwoh Hia, general, _Kwoh Yü_, history,
Lai barbarians, Lai-chou Fu, Lakes of Hu Nan and Kiang Si, Lakes of Kiang Su, Lan-thou Fu, Land, belongs to Emperor, Land-owners, Language questions, Lang-ya, locality, Laos tribes, Lao-tsz, philosopher, Lao-tsz's book, Law, Law, natural, Leather chariots, Leather trade, Left and Right, Legal fictions, Legge, Dr., Legists, Lex Julia, Li, Emperor, Li Hung-chang, Li K'wei, lawyer, Li Ping, engineer, Li Tan, See Lao-tsz Liang, state, Liao River, Liao Tung, Lieh-tsz, Taoist author, Lin-tsz, city, Literary activity, Literary pedants, Literature, destruction of, Literature, early, Liu Hia, person, Liu K'un-yih, viceroy, Livadia, Treaty of, Loadstone, Lob Nor, Local customs, Loess territory, Loh River, Loh-yang , Lolo, tribes, Long Tartars, Loss of rule, Lu, extinction of, Lu, Lu stripped of territory, Luh-fu, personal name, Lunations, Luni-solar years,
Macedon, Maire du palais, Males, Seven, Manchu dynasty, Manchuria, Manchus, Manes, Maps, Marco Polo, Markets, Marquesses, Marriages, exogamic, Marriages, imperial, Marriages, Tartar, Marriages, vassal, Marseilles, Martial King, the; , Mats, Meat eating, Meat, gifts of sacrificial, Medicine, Memorizing books, Mencius, philosopher, Mêng, Ford, Merchants, log Mercury, Meridians, Mesne-lords, Metals, Meteors, Metropolis, 279 , Miao-tsz tribes, Migrating birds, Migration, Mikado, See Jimmu Mining, Ministers of State, Missions, , Modern ideas, Modernism, Mon, people, Monaco, Money, Mongolia, Mongols, Monosyllabic language, Months and moons, Moon, proclaiming the, Moon, sacrifice at full, Morals, Mothers, quality of, See Wives Mourning and War, Mourning customs, Muh Emperor, Muh, Duke of Ts'in, Mulberry trees, Municipia, Music, Mustard, Mutilation, Mutilation of corpses,
Names, ancient and modern place, Names, Chinese proper, Names, clan, Names, personal, Names, posthumous, Names, Tartar, "Naming" process, Nanking, modern, Nan-yang Fu, Napoleon, National colours, See Flags Natural law, Nature, Naval fights, Navigable rivers, Navigation by sea, Needles, Nepaul, Ngwei, state, Nien-po, locality, Nine Tripods, Ningpo, modern, Nomad horsemen, Norman feudal system, Nose-cutting, Nosu. See Lolo Nucleus of old China ,
Oaths, Odes, Odes, Book of, Okuma, Count, Omens, Opium, Oppolzer's dates, Oracles, consulting, Oranges, Orthodox Chinese, Orthodox courts, Ouigours, Oviet, See Yüeh
PA, state, Pagodas, Palaces, Pao-ch'êng, locality, Paper, invention of, Paranymphs, Pass, frontier, Paterfamilias, Patriarchal rule, Peace Conference, "Pechelee" Gulf, Pedantry, Pedigree, Pêh K'i, General, Peking, modern, Peking plain, Pelasgi, People, the, Period, Protector, "Perpendicular and Horizontal" Period, Persia, Persian civilization, Personal causes of war, Personal names, Philosophy, Phoenicians, Physicians, Pigs, "Piled Stones," locality, Pilgrimages, Pillars of Hercules, P'ing-yang Fu, Pisces, Pivot points, historical, Ploughed fields, Ploughman Emperor, Poetry, See Odes Poetry, classic, See Odes Police, Politeness, Political intrigue, Pope, comparison with the, Population, Population, non-Chinese, Posterity, importance of, Posthumous names, Posthumous titles, Powers, great, Prayer, Precedence, Premiers, See Ministers Presage, See Astrology Presents from Emperor, Priestly caste, no, Princesses, Principalities, , Prisons, Prisoners of war, Proclaiming the law, Proclaiming the moon, Proclamation, Progress in China, Promontory, Shan Tung, Prophecy, , Propriety, Prostitution, Protector, First, Protector, Protector, Third, Protectors, Joint, Protectors of China, Proverbs, Prussia, P'u-chou Fu, P'uh, barbarians, Punishment, Punishments, barbarous, Purification, Pyrrhus,
Quelpaert, Island, Quicksilver,
Race feeling, Racing, Railway, "British," Ranks of nobility, Ranks, official, Records, , Redwater, River, Regency, See Duke of Chou Reign periods, Religion, none in ancient China, Religion of Confucius , Religious compromise, Remains, ancient, Rénan, Ernest, Residences at the metropolis, Revolutionary literature, Rice, Right and Left, Rites, See Ritual Rites, Book of, Rites of Chou, Ritual, Ritual chivalry, Ritual, Shinto, Rivers and migration, Rivers and navigation, Road, begging, Roads, Roman civilization, Royal caste, Rulers, divine right of, Rulers, tyranny of, Russia,
Sacrifices, Sacrifices, drum, Sacrifices, family, Sacrifices, human, Sacrifices, spring and autumn, Sacrificial meat, Saga literature, Sagittarius, Salary in grain, Salt flats, Salt trade, Sanctions, solemn, Savages, See Barbarians Scandinavia, Sceptres, Science and religion, Scottish parallels, Scripture, Scythians, See Turks and Hiung-nu Sea, little known, Seal character, Seals, Seasons, Semi-mythical times, Septimius Severus, Settled communities, Seven States, Sha-Sh?, modern, Shakespeare, Shan-hai Kiwan, Shan races, Shan Si, province, Shan Tung, province, Shang dynasty, Shang, principality, Shang Ti, title, Shanghai, modern, Shao, Duke of , Shao-hing, modern, Sheba, Queen of, _Shên-wu_, Mikado , Shen Si, province, _Sh?-ki_, history, Shint? ritual, Shipbuilding, Shipping, early, Shou-mêng, King of Wu, Shrines, Shuh Hiang, statesman, Shuh, state, Shun, Emperor, Siam, Siang, Emperor, Siang-yang city, Siberia, Sin, idea of, Si-ngan Fu, Sinim, land of, Si-ning, locality, Silk, Silk industry, Silk, writing on, sisters as joint wives, Siwangmu, country and ruler, Six Kingdoms, Six states , slavery, smearing blood, smearing lips with blood, Solstices, Son of Heaven, Songs, 154 , Soochow city, Soochow Creek, Soothsayers, Soul, the, S?ul , South, facing, South China, South Sea, South Sea Islands, Southern Yüeh, Sovereign quality, Spanish parallels, Spinning, Spirits, , Spirits and ghosts, Spiritual power, Sport, Spring and Autumn Annals, Spring functions, Standards, See Flags States, size of, Statesmen, intimacy of, Statistics, absence of, Stone documents, Stone drums, Struggle for empire, Succession questions, Sii Chou, Suicide, Sultans of Turkey, Sun, facing the, Sun, movements of, Sung as Protector, Sung, state, Sung's diplomatic position, Supernatural agencies, Superstition, Surnames, Surveys, Su Ts'in, diplomatist, Swords, Sz, the River, Sz Ch'wan history, Sz Ch'wan, province, Sz-ma Kwang, Sz-ma Ts'ien,
Tablets, ancestral, Tablets, documentary, See Documents Tabu, T'ai Hu, lake, T'ai-p'ing rebels, T'ai-shan, mountain, Ta-liang, capital, Tan, historiographer, Tan-yang, locality, T'ang dynasty, Tao, or the way, Taoists, Tarim valley, Tartar advisers, "Tartar," ambiguity of word, Tartar cart-houses, Tartar Emperors, Tartar Empire, Tartar-Generals, Tartar kings, Tartar pedigrees, Tartar treaties, Tartar wives, Tartars, Tartars annexed, Tartars kill Emperor, Tartars, Northern, Tartars, Western, Tartary, Tattooing, Taxation, Tea, Têh-an, locality, Temple of Heaven, Temples in China, See Ancestral Têng, state, Tenshi, or T'ien-tsz, Territorial names, Teutonic migrations, Theatricals, Thicket country, See King Tho, people, Three Miao, Three Tsin, Ti, the word, or Emperor, Tibet, Tibetans, T'ien family, T'ien H&g, Tientsin, modern, Tillage, , Tin Islands, Titles of vassal rulers, Tobacco, Tombs, Tombs, ancient, Tombs, desecration of, Tombs of Emperors, Tones, Chinese, Tonic languages, Tonquin, Tonquin, early relations with, Tortoises, T'ouman, personal name, Tower of Babel, Trade, Traditions, Treaties, Treaties, Chinese vassal, Treaties, faithlessness to, Treaties, Tartar, Tribute, Tribute of Yii, Triennial homage, Tripods, Nine, Trophies, war, Tropics, Ts'ai, state, Tsaidam, Ts'ao Wên-chung, statesman, Ts'ao, state, Ts'ao-thou Fu, Tschepe, Father, S. J., Ts'i a Tartar power, Ts'i and Tsin cooperation, Ts'i and Ts'u wars, Ts'i-nan Fu, Ts'i revolution, Tsi, River, Ts'i, state, Ts'i's gay capital, Ts'i's hegemony, Ts'i's hospitality, Ts'i's luxury, Tsin and Ts'i wars, Tsin and Ts'in wars, Tsin and Ts'u wars, Tsin, extension of, Tsin, half Tartar, T'sin, history of, Tsin, New, Tsin, Old, Tsin, state, Tsin, Three, Tsin's division, T's'in and Tsin wars, T's'in and Ts'u cooperation, T's'in empire, T's'in history, T's'in not literary, Ts'in Protector, Ts'in, state, Ts'in's isolation, Ts'in's kindness to Tsin, Ts'in's Tartar blood, Ts'ing-chou Fu, Ts'ing-tao, See Kiao Chou Tso Chwan, history, Tso K'iu-ming, historian, Ts'u a literary state, Ts'u and Ts'i wars, Ts'u and Tsin wars, Ts'u and Ts'in straggle for empire, Ts'u and Wu wars, Ts'u as a suzerain, Ts'u as Protector, Ts'u extinguishes Lu Ts'u, foreign blood Ts'u, progress of Ts'u, state Tsushima Tsz-ch'an _Tsz-chi T'ung-kien_, History T'ung-thou Fu Tung-t'ing Lake Tunguses Tun-hwang, locality Turfan, locality Turkestan Turkestan, Early travels to Turks Turning-points in history Turtles Twelve mansions Twelve Tables Tyrants, Five, See Protectors
Ultima Thule Uncle, political status of Urumtsi, locality Usury Uviet
Valuables Varnish for writing Vassal princes Vassals, barbarous Vicar of God Victims in sacrifice Victory, praying for Vietnam, See Yiieh Viscounts Voltaire on Chinese eclipses Vows, See Oaths and Sanctions
Wagner Wall, Great Walls of cities Wanderings of Second Protector Wang, title War, See Warfare War-chariots War, etiquette of Warfare, Chinese Warrior King, See Martial King Water-courses Wealth, ideas of Wei , state Wei Kiang Wei, River Wei, state Wei, Valley Wei Yang, statesman Heights and Measures Wei-hai-wei Wei-hwei Fu W&chow Wên Wang Western filtration of ideas Western marches of China Wheelbarrows Widows William HI. of England Wine Wives, classes of Wizards Wo, name for Japanese Women, position of Worship or sacrifice Writing, ancient Writing brush Writing modified Writing unknown to Tartars, etc. Written characters Wu and Ts'u wars Wu and Ytieh wars Wu as Protector Wu extinguished Wu, state "Wu," the word Wu's pedigree Wu's progress Wuhu, modern Wu-sih, locality Wusung River Wu Wang
Ya-chou Fu Yamagata, Prince or Duke _Yamêns_ Yang Chou, province Yangchow Yang-tsz, joined to Hwai Yang-tsz, mouths of Yang-tsz, River Yao, Emperor Year, the Yellow River as boundary its early course its later courses its lower course its northern bank Tartars its northern bend its southern bend Yen, state of Yen-tsz, philosopher Yih-ch'êng, locality Ying, clan-name Yu, Emperor Yii, Emperor Yii Chou, locality Yü-yüeh, See Uviet Yiian Shi-k'ai, Viceroy Yiieh, Shan Tung capital of Yiieh as Protector Yüeh destroys Wu Yiieh, Southern Yiieh, state Yiieh, the Hundred Yung-ning, locality Yün Nan, province
Zodiac Zoroaster


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